Summary:
The study of eyewitness testimony can be traced back over 100 years. This article outlines how it all began and examines the most commonly researched areas of investigation.

In 1896 Albert Von Schrenk-Notzing testified at the trial of a man accused of murdering three women. Drawing on research into memory and suggestibility he argued that pre-trial publicity meant that witnesses could not distinguish between what they actually saw and what had been reported in the press. ...


Keywords:
eyewitness testimony,eyewitness memory,psychology, forensic psychology, eye witness testimony


Article Body:
The study of eyewitness testimony can be traced back over 100 years. This article outlines how it all began and examines the most commonly researched areas of investigation.

In 1896 Albert Von Schrenk-Notzing testified at the trial of a man accused of murdering three women. Drawing on research into memory and suggestibility he argued that pre-trial publicity meant that witnesses could not distinguish between what they actually saw and what had been reported in the press.

The formal study of eyewitness testimony is usually examined within a framework of cognitive processing, which put simply refers to the different ways in which we make sense of the world around us.

We do this by employing the mental skills at our disposal such as thinking, perception, memory, awareness, reasoning and judgment. Although cognitive processes can only be inferred and cannot be seen directly, they all have very important practical implications within a legal context.

Given that the way we think, perceive, reason and judge can be less than perfect it’s easy to understand why the factors influencing these processes are studied by psychologists'; not least because of the grave implications that this imperfection can have within the criminal justice system. As Huff and Rattner note:

the single most important factor contributing to wrongful conviction is eyewitness misidentification.

Stages of eyewitness memory:

Stage 1: Witnessing the incident.

When witnessing an incident, information about the event is entered into memory, however, research has shown that the accuracy of this initial information acquisition can be influenced by a number of factors.

Take the duration of the event being witnessed for instance. In a very simple experiment conducted by Clifford and Richards(1977), participants are instructed to approach a number of police officers and engage in conversation for either 15 or 30 seconds.

Thirty seconds after the conversation ends, the experimenter asks the police officer to recall details of the person they had just been speaking to using a 10-item checklist. The checklist contains items relating to the persons appearance such as hair colour, facial hair etc. The results of the study showed that in the longer 30 second condition, police were significantly more accurate in their recall.

Stage 2: Waiting period before giving evidence.

This stage is concerned with the period of retention between perception i.e., seeing an incident and the subsequent recollection of that incident. Unsurprisingly, research has consistently found that the longer the gap between witnessing an incident and recalling the incident, the less accurate the recollection of that incident becomes.

There have been numerous experiments, usually related to a staged event, that support this contention. Malpass and Devine (1981), for instance, compared the accuracy of witness identifications after 3 days (short retention period) and 5 months (long retention period). The study found no false identifications after 3 days but after 5 months, 35% of identifications were false.

Stage 3: Giving evidence.

The final stage in the eyewitness memory process relates to the ability of the witness to access and retrieve information from memory. In a legal context, the retrieval of information is usually elicited through a process of questioning and it is for this reason that a great deal of research has investigated the impact of types of questioning on eyewitness memory.

The most substantial body of research has concerned leading questions, which has consistently shown that even very subtle changes in the wording of a question can influence subsequent testimony.

One of the most notable researchers in this field is Elizabeth Loftus who has been investigating eyewitness testimony for over thirty years. In one of her classic studies, participants witnessed a film of a car accident and were asked to estimate the speed of the cars involved. One group of witnesses were asked to estimate the speed of the cars when they contacted each other. A second group of witnesses were asked to estimate the speed of the cars when they smashed each other.

On average the first 'contacted' group gave an estimate of 31.8 miles per hour. Whereas, the average speed in the 'second' smashed group was 40.8 miles per hour.

Experimental validity:

In any discussion of eyewitness memory, you'll see the terms, 'experiment', 'participants' and 'staged event' frequently used. This is because the majority of research into eyewitness memory has been conducted within psychology laboratories.

This raises the very important issue of whether it is possible to generalise the findings obtained under these artificial conditions to real life cases.

The simple, if unsatisfactory answer is that it is very difficult to say. Take for instance the work of Yuille and Cutshall, these researchers conducted a case study with witnesses to a real shooting incident, interviewing them just after the event and again 5 months later. They concluded that the performance and accuracy of the witnesses differed in several respects to what would be expected according to the experimental literature.

However, the strength of laboratory based research is that the experimenter is able to exercise a great deal of control over what happens. In the case study reported by Yuille and Cutshall, it was impossible to know the extent to which the witnesses had conferred and how much media coverage of the incident they had seen, and how much influence this had on their testimony.

If you'd like to find out more about eyewitness memory, you can do so by visiting www.all-about-forensic-psychology.com

Summary:

Follwo and discover what the bet tips are when you are under pressure.

Keywords:

golf instructions, golf lessons, golf tips, golf schools, ecco golf schoes, impact golf training

Article Body:

Get Every Putt to the Hole

In team formats, it pays to get the ball to the hole, if only to give your partners a good read. Most putts come up short because the player decelerates on the through-stroke. Instead, make sure your through-stroke is as long or slightly longer than your backstroke.

Minimize Your Swing Thoughts

Keep your game plan simple. Put it on a piece of paper on the cart steering wheel and refer to it before each full shot.

Preshot: Visualize what you want the ball to do.

Address: Align the clubface where you want the ball to go.

Swing thought: Freely swing the clubhead.

Survive The First-tee Jitters

Nervousness makes you speed up your tempo, which affects consistency and accuracy. Take several deep breaths as you get ready to hit, inhaling through your nose and exhaling through your mouth. Swing your driver smoothly, like you want to hit it only 100 yards.

Make More Tough Short Putts

Playing a format that requires you to putt everything out? Set your putterface square to the desired line, then square your feet and shoulders to that line. Make a smooth stroke while looking at the target, not at the ball.

Take More Club on Par 3s

Few amateurs hit the ball over or through the green on par 3s; most come up short. Select a club that will get you to the yardage at the back of the green. If you hit it flush, you're on; if you hit it less than solidly, you still might make it to the putting surface.

Score Lower on Par 5s

Take a "do the math" approach. Most par 5s are 500 yards or more. Make the last shot your favorite yardage into the green. Subtract that yardage, then divide the difference by two. With this strategy, you're hitting lofted clubs that are easier to hit and more accurate.

Get Out of the Sand in One Try

Good greenside bunker players accelerate the clubhead through the shot, letting the sand "splash" the ball out. Set up with the face of your sand wedge slightly open, the ball slightly forward in your stance. Hit the sand behind the ball, and finish your swing like you're hitting a full 5-iron.

Chip with Your Putting Stroke

To avoid chunking or skulling your chip shots, take a lofted club like a 7-, 8- or 9-iron and grip it like your putter. Lean the shaft and your body toward the target for a slightly descending blow. Make your putting stroke, allowing the loft of the club to carry the ball over the unpredictable turf onto the green.

Get Your Irons Airborne

Most topped shots occur when you try to help the ball into the air with a scooping motion. To hit down on the ball, set up with more weight on your left foot than your right. Take the club back more vertically and return it on a downward angle of attack.

Good news for motorists when things go bad is that an elite program for automotive repair facilities, founded by the group that certifies auto technicians, marks its tenth year.

The Blue Seal of Excellence Recognition Program (BSRP) was founded to specifically recognize those businesses with the highest commitment to the National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence (ASE)'s goals. Businesses must have at least 75 percent of their repair personnel ASE certified in each area of service offered and submit to an annual review.

In addition to looking for a repair shop with certified technicians, ASE recommends that consumers start shopping for a repair facility beforeÊthey need one; look for a well-organized facility, with vehicles in the parking lot equal in value toÊtheir own, and modern equipment in the service bays; and look for policies on estimated repair costs, diagnostic fees, guarantees, and methods of payment.

There are some 1,500 such BSRP facilities, including repair shops, parts establishments and support businesses. They're committed to professional excellence and communicating quality to consumers.

These shops post an ASE sign and often display distinctive BSRP items, including a wall plaque, posters, customer handouts and window decals. The technicians wear blue and white ASE shoulder insignia.

All across the country, millions of Americas sport a football jersey from their favorite football player or team. While you may not necessarily wear a jersey, you should still support your favorite Formula D driver or, at least, the sport as a whole. You can easily do this by purchasing Formula D drifting merchandise. If you have never tired to purchase this type of merchandise before, you may be wondering how you can go about doing so.

When it comes to buying Formula D merchandise, it is important to focus on a particular type of product or item. This is because, in most cases, you will find that you need to use different search methods when looking for a shirt versus looking for a book on the sport. So, for that reason, you are advised to try and narrow down your search. Of course, you can also search for additional products later. Plus, there is also a good chance that you will come across additional merchandise that catches your eye, when searching for a particular Formula D product.

When it comes to apparel, many fans like to wear apparel that has a focus on their favorite athlete. If this is the case with you, you will want to select your favorite Formula D driver and then search for any merchandise that they may have available for sale. If your favorite drifter has an online website, there is a good chance that merchandise, including clothing and apparel, could be found on their online website. If you are unable to find this apparel, you could also order your own. A large number of online websites allow you to custom order products, such as hats, shirts, and much more.

If you are interested in purchasing merchandise that has a general focus on Formula Drifting, instead of just a particular competitor, you may find it a little bit easier to find what you are looking for. Whether you want to purchase a book or a DVD, you should easily be able to find a number of different products online, not to mention in storefront retail locations. Although books and media items are available in most storefront retail locations, you may have better luck searching online. Most storefront retail stores are limited on the number of items that they carry. Essentially, this means that for a larger product selection, you are advised to shop online.

When shopping online, you will find that you have a number of different options. Online, you can find a large number of online retailers, as well as online auction sites. While your first impulse may be to purchase the cheapest products, you may want to think about who you are purchasing Formula D merchandise from. Although online auction websites are nice, you could be giving back to the sport by directly ordering merchandise from the Formula Drift Championship Series or from professional Formula D drivers.

In addition to ordering merchandise online, there is also a good chance that you could find the same or similar products at live Formula D events. During these events, vendors tend to setup display booths. The type of merchandise available for sale will all depend on where you are, but you should have a wide variety of different products to choose from. These products are likely to include Formula D apparel, as well as movies, books, and other media items.

By keeping the above mentioned points in mind, you should be able to find whatever you are looking for. Whether you are looking to purchase a Formula D shirt or the newest video game, you now know where to search. Now that you know where to go, what are you waiting for?